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The Sahara holds some of the most mind-bending discoveries that defy explanation. Meanwhile, the narrow Strait of Gibraltar raises the question—why has no one ever bridged Europe and Africa?
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00:00Well, there you are. The sun is scorching. You're thirsty.
00:04All you can think about is water and ancient bones under your feet.
00:09You're wandering through the Sahara, the largest hot desert on Earth.
00:13Right now, you're crossing a stretch of sand called Whale Valley.
00:17And all over these 75 square miles of land, fossils cover the ground so thickly that you can't help but
00:24step on them.
00:26Paleontologist Esham Salam says it's an unusual picture in this place.
00:30The bones are poking right out of the cliffs, as if they're calling to you to come check them out.
00:36You can spot ribs scattered all over the place.
00:39Look at these vertebrae. They're giant.
00:42Ooh, the creature they once belonged to must have been up to 65 feet long.
00:47The fossils show that the animal had a streamlined body like today's whale, but still had features like hind legs
00:53and feet.
00:54For scientists, it means a very exciting thing.
00:57They might have discovered a fully intact skeleton of a prehistoric whale.
01:01It was an animal that lived in this area when Egypt was underwater.
01:05You see, today, the Valley of the Whales is the world's largest ancient whale graveyard.
01:11You're likely wondering what marine animals are doing in a desert more than 100 miles away from the nearest coast.
01:18Well, millions of years ago, this desert was at the bottom of a massive ocean called the Tethys, which stretch
01:25from Europe to India.
01:26When sea levels drop, the ocean left behind a seabed covered with fossils.
01:31And today, the fossils of some of the earliest known whales rest here, which gives researchers a peek into how
01:37today's massive ocean whales may have evolved.
01:41The fossils here are super detailed, even with some stomach contents still intact.
01:47Uh-oh.
01:47Scientists have also found fossils of ancient sharks, crocodiles, and turtles, helping to recreate what this marine world looked like
01:56millions of years ago.
01:58Now, the first whale bones were discovered in 1902, but it wasn't until the 1980s that people really started to
02:05explore the area, only when access to this area became better.
02:08Sadly, some fossils had been taken away by collectors before the site turned into a protected area.
02:15Most of the fossils are just under the surface, slowly revealed by erosion.
02:20Whale Valley gives us an amazing glimpse into millions of years of ancient coastal marine life.
02:26But let's move further.
02:29Ancient whale fossils aren't the only discovery you're going to make today.
02:32For over 150 years, scientists have been puzzled by a strange creature that lived millions of years ago.
02:39But now, thanks to some amazing fossils found in Morocco, they've finally figured it out.
02:45Look at them.
02:46These creatures are called blah-blah-blah.
02:48Nah, I'm kidding.
02:49Stylophorans.
02:50They look like flattened armor with a long arm sticking out.
02:54Researchers discovered these creatures in 2014 and were shocked.
02:58The fossils dated back around 478 million years.
03:03They found around 450 specimens.
03:05And, to their surprise, some even had soft tissues preserved, which is super rare.
03:11Before this, they only knew stylophorans from their hard parts.
03:15Originally, scientists thought these creatures were good old equinoderms.
03:19Animals like sea urchins and starfish.
03:23But new discoveries prove that they had a core body and feeding arm, similar to modern starfish,
03:29complete with a water vascular system to help them move and eat.
03:33This finding ends a long debate about where stylophorans fit in the animal family tree.
03:38Now we know.
03:39They're related to equinoderms, but are more advanced because they don't have the typical five-ray symmetry.
03:46Ooh, come here and look at this giant fossil.
03:49It was found in the Sahara and gave scientists new insights into the Spinosaurus,
03:54the largest carnivorous dinosaur we know about.
03:57These 95-million-year-old remains also confirmed that it was the first known swimming dinosaur.
04:04The Spinosaurus had flat, paddle-like feet and nostrils on the top of its crocodile-like head,
04:10perfect for staying underwater.
04:12It was a pretty weird dinosaur, with a long neck, trunk, tail, and a 7-foot sail on its back.
04:18So, it must have spent a lot of time in the water.
04:23At over 50 feet long, Spinosaurus might have been even larger than T. rex.
04:28The first Spinosaurus remains were discovered about 100 years ago in Egypt.
04:33But only this new fossil, found in Morocco, helped scientists reconstruct this dinosaur for the first time.
04:41Researchers paid attention to the creature's shorter hind limbs and wide claws.
04:46These features point to adaptations for life in the water.
04:50Its snout and dense bones also suggest it was a swimmer, while its spiked tail likely attracted mates.
04:57Hey, good-looking. Come here often.
04:59And here's another astonishing find made in Tunisia, the remains of Machimosaurus rex.
05:06Now, so far, it's believed to be the biggest crocodile ever.
05:10This ancient croc was about 32 feet long and weighed around 66,000 pounds.
05:16It was a top predator around 130 million years ago, and its skull was over 5 feet long.
05:22Now, this discovery is a big deal, because it shows that these crocs stuck around longer than we thought.
05:29Before this, scientists believed that they disappeared during a minor extinction event between the Jurassic and Cretaceous periods.
05:37Now, let's go back to the fact that the Sahara was once underwater, and some of the largest sea creatures
05:43ever lived there.
05:44A study, published in the Bulletin of the American Museum of Natural History, speaks about an ancient body of water
05:51called the Trans-Saharan Seaway.
05:54It existed between 100 and 50 million years ago, covering parts of Western Africa.
05:59Scientists spent two decades trying to recreate this prehistoric underwater world.
06:04They found it was warm and shallow, home to some pretty terrifying creatures, including 5-foot-long catfish and 40
06:12-foot-long sea snakes.
06:14Yikes!
06:14The seaway was cut off from larger oceans for long stretches, which may have helped these predators grow larger, because
06:22resources were always available.
06:24It's a classic case of evolution at work, leading to what scientists call gigantism in isolated environments.
06:32But all that water didn't just disappear with no trace.
06:36Under the sands of the Sahara, scientists have discovered a massive ancient lake, which they're calling a mega-lake.
06:43Makes sense?
06:44This lake formed around 250,000 years ago, when the Nile River flooded the eastern Sahara.
06:51At its biggest, this lake covered over 42,000 square miles.
06:55It's about half as big as Kansas.
06:58They also found evidence of a smaller lake, 93 miles west of the Nile, at a slightly lower level and
07:05covering 18,600 square miles.
07:07All of this adds to growing evidence that once, North Africa had many lakes that might have created migration routes,
07:15helping early humans move across the continent.
07:18Now, in the Sahara, you can find not only fossils of bizarre animals.
07:24In May 2020, some weird rocks with greenish crystals were discovered in a sandy region in southern Algeria's Sahara Desert.
07:32When scientists checked them out, they found out these rocks weren't from Earth.
07:37They were actually pieces of a meteorite called Erg Check 002.
07:43This meteorite is super old, like the oldest volcanic rock ever found.
07:48It melted ages ago in the fiery heart of an ancient protoplanet that no longer exists.
07:54Researchers had recently published a study in Nature Communications, revealing that they have analyzed lead and uranium isotopes in Erg
08:02Check 002, and found out it's more than 4.5 billion years old.
08:08Another cool discovery made in the Sahara is quite unexpected.
08:12A few years ago, scientists found what they think are the world's oldest colors, and their bright pink.
08:18These pigments were uncovered from rocks that are around 1.1 billion years old in the Sahara Desert.
08:25The colors came from microscopic organisms, as animals didn't exist back then.
08:30The discovery was made by a Ph.D. student who crushed the ancient rocks and analyzed the pigments.
08:37These pink pigments are actually ancient chlorophyll from photosynthetic organisms that lived in an ocean that's long gone.
08:45Researchers are now sure that this finding could help explain why larger, complex creatures showed up much later in Earth's
08:53history.
08:55Before these colors were discovered, scientists didn't know what was missing in the food chain that delayed the evolution of
09:01larger animals.
09:02Now they understand that tiny cyanobacteria were at the bottom of that chain.
09:08Apparently, this discovery is not just about finding some old pink stuff.
09:12Scientists believe it's a breakthrough in understanding the history of life on Earth.
09:18So look at this narrow passage between the north of Morocco and the southern part of the Spanish region.
09:24It's called the Strait of Gibraltar.
09:27There are only 8 miles between the two continents.
09:30But for some reason, there's no bridge.
09:33Despite people having been dreaming for centuries about connecting these two regions.
09:37There are places in the world where a bridge over water stretches for a much greater distance.
09:43For example, the Lake Pontchartrain Causeway near New Orleans, Louisiana, goes for 24 miles,
09:50which is three times the length of the hypothetical bridge between Africa and Europe.
09:55That's listed in the Guinness Book of World Records as the longest continuous bridge passing over water.
10:00It consists of two parallel bridges and connects the urban area of New Orleans with small settlements in the north
10:08of Lake Pontchartrain.
10:099,000 concrete piles hold more than 1,000 decks above the water.
10:14This large-scale structure was built in the middle of the 20th century.
10:18It only took 14 months from the start of construction to its completion.
10:23American engineers created a unique technology for attaching concrete piles to the base of the bridge.
10:29And this bridge is still functioning.
10:31So, what's the problem with building a shorter bridge to connect Africa and Europe?
10:36Let's first find out the value of the 8-mile bridge that could connect two continents and the reason why
10:43everyone is talking about it.
10:44In fact, the value of such a bridge would be enormous.
10:48Diamonds, oil, minerals.
10:50Africa is full of valuable materials.
10:53And Europe is happy to buy these things.
10:55This theoretical bridge could allow people to transport things for trade quickly and comfortably.
11:01But now, the exchange of goods between Africa and Europe is only possible thanks to airplanes and cargo ships.
11:09And airplanes are extremely expensive because of hefty fuel price tags.
11:14In addition, air travel is often delayed because of bad weather.
11:18There are long customs procedures and transportation from the airport to the destination.
11:23Ships can also be a problem.
11:25The narrow area of the Mediterranean Sea, where the two continents are closest to each other, is a dangerous place
11:32because of storms and strong currents.
11:35The transportation of your diamonds is highly dependent on weather conditions.
11:40The second advantage of such a bridge would be the creation of tens of thousands of jobs.
11:45People from Europe and Africa would build hotels, courts, parks, and even small towns for each other.
11:52The coastal parts of both continents would become a new economic center.
11:57And just imagine how much investment those places would attract.
12:01Europe and Africa would be much closer than ever before.
12:05You could drive from a small Spanish town to a safari park in northern Morocco, buy Moroccan tea, get some
12:12argan oil, and go home for the evening.
12:14Or you could take a high-speed train across the beautiful Mediterranean Sea.
12:19People would open hundreds of restaurants, amusement parks, shopping malls, and a museum next to this bridge.
12:26But, unfortunately, it's impossible to build such a bridge, at least at the moment.
12:31And here's why.
12:34The main problem is the Strait of Gibraltar itself, because of its strong currents and seismic activity.
12:40How can you start large-scale construction if, in a couple of days, an underwater earthquake can trigger giant waves
12:48and take all the ships underwater?
12:50Even if you build a bridge, rapid streams of water that constantly change direction can shake the entire structure and
12:58tear the connecting parts of the construction.
13:00The bridge over the Strait of Gibraltar must have a strong, sturdy system that will withstand seismic activity.
13:07Huge resources are required to create such a complex structure.
13:12Despite the dangerous passage between the two continents, it remains one of the busiest points in the world.
13:18It's the only place on the planet connecting the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean.
13:23About 300 ships pass through this area every day.
13:28Not only merchant ships, but also fishing vessels and tourist boats.
13:32There are not so many places in the world where you can watch whales coming out of the water.
13:37Not only people, but also marine creatures often visit this passage because of the peculiarities of the sea currents.
13:44But we'll talk about that later.
13:47Another problem is the depth of the Strait.
13:50In simple words, any bridge over the water is built on long metal piles.
13:56Builders and engineers stick piles into the seabed and use them as a holding base for the whole construction.
14:02But installing such piles firmly enough is a difficult task because of the uneven seabed.
14:09The seabed has a unique geological landscape, irregularities, and different densities of the Earth's rocks.
14:16There are also reefs, rocks, and pits.
14:19Any seabed requires extensive geological studies before piles are installed.
14:25However, the bottom of the Strait of Gibraltar is especially difficult because of its depth.
14:31Almost 3,000 feet.
14:33It's one of the deepest straits in the whole world.
14:36Just imagine, you'll need the height of 10 statues of liberty to reach the surface of the water from the
14:42bottom of the strait.
14:42What kind of piles should be used there to hold the entire bridge?
14:47Most likely, one pile will have to consist of several parts connected into one large metal rod.
14:54And don't forget about seismic activity.
14:57Let's say you've installed perfectly strong piles.
15:00The next problem is probably the most important one because it concerns marine life.
15:15The Strait of Gibraltar has a high salt content.
15:18This natural element makes water heavier and makes it descend to the bottom of the deep Mediterranean basin.
15:25Then, this salt water pushes up cold water from the seabed into the Atlantic Ocean.
15:31These changes in water density, as well as fast currents, create sea vortices and turbulence.
15:37It's like a raging cauldron of cold water that raises a lot of nutrients to the surface.
15:44The hollows and hills of the Strait of Gibraltar are filled with different substances and sunlight.
15:50And this creates ideal conditions for the formation of phytoplankton.
15:54Whales, dolphins, and other marine creatures adore this delicacy.
15:58That's why you can see about seven species of whales and dolphins in this place.
16:03What might happen to phytoplankton after the start of global construction?
16:08Carbon dioxide, crushed rock, tons of dust and ashes, falling building materials,
16:14all of this could significantly pollute the environment.
16:18Without phytoplankton, many fish would go extinct.
16:21Without fish, thousands of fishers wouldn't be able to get food and earn money.
16:26But even if the bridge was built, cars and trains would continue to pollute the air and water.
16:33This disruption of the delicate balance in this narrow strait can lead to larger-scale environmental disasters.
16:40Dolphins and whales may leave to look for food elsewhere and thus take resources from other marine inhabitants.
16:47Like falling dominoes, one problem can follow another.
16:50And all this because of one bridge.
16:53In 2007, the Spanish Ministry of Environmental Protection introduced speed limits for all ships sailing through the strait
17:01in order to not disrupt the delicate balance of nature.
17:05At the beginning of the 20th century, a French engineer proposed a project of a bridge.
17:10But it was rejected because it was too complicated and costly.
17:15People also tried to develop a 23-mile-long tunnel.
17:18But this project also faced financial and technical difficulties.
17:23People are still dreaming of a bridge over the Strait of Gibraltar.
17:27Perhaps in the future, when we develop cooler technologies, we'll be able to build this thing.
17:33Oh, by the way, there hasn't always been water between these two regions.
17:38In the distant past, the two continents were connected.
17:41The entire Mediterranean Sea is the remains of the Tidus Sea that existed before the era of dinosaurs.
17:49Then the African and Indian plates collided with the Eurasian one, and the Tidus Sea completely disappeared.
17:56In its place, a land bridge was formed that separated the Mediterranean Sea from the ocean.
18:02Without access to water, the sea dried up about 6 million years ago.
18:07But then, when the bridge came down, the water began to fill the dried up pool.
18:13For tens of thousands of years, the narrow plate sank lower and lower,
18:17and the Mediterranean Sea eventually got its current water levels.
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